Many people worry that substances or exposures in their environment may
cause cancer. As part of the American Cancer Society’s role in informing
and educating people about cancer and its possible causes, this
document provides lists of substances and exposures that are known or
suspected to cause cancer. The lists below have been developed by two
highly respected agencies – the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) and the US National Toxicology Program (NTP). Some related
information is included on how these and other agencies and groups test
and classify possible carcinogens.
The American Cancer Society does not keep detailed information on each
of the exposures on these lists. If you are looking for more in-depth
information on a particular item on these lists, please refer to the
agencies in the “Additional resources” section.
What is a carcinogen?
Cancer is caused by changes in a cell’s DNA – its genetic “blueprint.”
Some of these changes may be inherited from our parents. Others may be
caused by outside exposures, which are often referred to as
environmental factors. Environmental factors can include a wide range of
exposures, such as:
Lifestyle factors (nutrition, tobacco use, physical activity, etc.)
Naturally occurring exposures (ultraviolet light, radon gas, infectious agents, etc.)
Medical treatments (radiation and medicines including chemotherapy,
hormone drugs, drugs that suppress the immune system, etc.)
Workplace exposures
Household exposures
Pollution
Substances and exposures that can lead to cancer are called carcinogens.
Some carcinogens do not affect DNA directly, but lead to cancer in
other ways. For example, they may cause cells to divide at a faster than
normal rate, which could increase the chances that DNA changes will
occur.
Carcinogens do not cause cancer in every case, all the time. Substances
labeled as carcinogens may have different levels of cancer-causing
potential. Some may cause cancer only after prolonged, high levels of
exposure. And for any particular person, the risk of developing cancer
depends on many factors, including how they are exposed to a carcinogen,
the length and intensity of the exposure, and the person's genetic
makeup.
How do researchers determine if something is a carcinogen?
Testing to see if something can cause cancer is often difficult. It is
not ethical to test a substance by exposing people to it and seeing if
they get cancer from it. That’s why scientists must use other types of
tests, which may not always give clear answers.
Lab studies
Scientists get much of their data about whether something might cause
cancer from lab studies in cell cultures and animals. There are far too
many substances (both natural and man-made) to test each one in lab
animals, so scientists use what is already known about chemical
structures, results from other types of lab tests, the extent of human
exposure, and other factors to select chemicals for testing. For
example, they can often get an idea about whether a substance might
cause a problem by comparing it to similar chemicals that have already
been studied.
Although lab studies alone can't always predict if a substance will
cause cancer in people, virtually all known human carcinogens that have
been adequately tested also cause cancer in lab animals. In many cases,
carcinogens are first found to cause cancer in lab animals and are later
found to cause cancer in people.
Most studies of potential carcinogens expose the lab animals to doses
that are much higher than common human exposures. This is so that cancer
risk can be detected in relatively small groups of animals. It is not
always clear if the results from animal studies will be the same for
people as they are normally exposed to a substance. For example, the
effects seen in lab studies with very high doses of a substance may not
be the same at much lower doses, or the effects of a substance when it
is inhaled may not be the same as if it is applied to the skin. Also,
the bodies of lab animals and humans don't always process substances in
the same way.
But for safety reasons, it is usually assumed that exposures that cause
cancer at larger doses in animals may also cause cancer in people. It
isn't always possible to know how the exposure dose might affect risk,
but it is reasonable for public health purposes to assume that lowering
human exposure will reduce risk.
Studies in people
Another important way to identify carcinogens is through epidemiologic
studies, which look at human populations to determine which factors
might be linked to cancer. These studies also provide useful
information, but they have their limits. Humans do not live in a
controlled environment. People are exposed to many substances at any
given time, including those they encounter at work, school, or home; in
the food they eat; and in the air they breathe. It's very unlikely they
know exactly what they've been exposed to or that they would be able to
remember all of their exposures if asked by a researcher. And there are
usually many years (often decades) between exposure to a carcinogen and
the development of cancer. Therefore, it can be very hard to definitely
link any particular exposure to cancer.
By combining data from both types of studies, scientists do their best
to make an educated assessment of a substance's cancer-causing ability.
When the evidence is conclusive, the substance is labeled as a
carcinogen. When the available evidence is compelling but not felt to be
conclusive, the substance may be considered to be a probable
carcinogen. But in some cases there simply isn't enough information to
be certain one way or the other.
Who determines how carcinogens are classified?
Several national and international agencies are responsible for
determining the cancer-causing potential of different substances.
International Agency for Research on Cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is part of the
World Health Organization (WHO). One of its major goals is to identify
causes of cancer. The most widely used system for classifying
carcinogens comes from the IARC. In the past 30 years, the IARC has
evaluated the cancer-causing potential of more than 900 likely
candidates, placing them into one of the following groups:
Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans
Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans
Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans
Group 3: Unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans
Group 4: Probably not carcinogenic to humans
Perhaps not surprisingly, based on how hard it can be to test these
candidate carcinogens, most are listed as being of probable, possible,
or unknown risk. Only a little over 100 are classified as “carcinogenic
to humans.”
National Toxicology Program
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) is formed from parts of several
different US government agencies, including the National Institutes of
Health (NIH), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The NTP updates its Report on
Carcinogens (RoC) every few years.
The Report on Carcinogens identifies 2 groups of agents:
“Known to be human carcinogens”
“Reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens”
The current version of the RoC lists about 250 substances and exposures.
Unlike the IARC’s list, the RoC does not list substances that have been
studied and found not to be carcinogens.
Environmental Protection Agency
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maintains the Integrated
Risk Information System (IRIS), an electronic database that contains
information on human health effects from exposure to certain substances
in the environment. The EPA uses a rating system similar to that of IARC
when describing the cancer-causing potential of a substance:
Group A: Carcinogenic to humans
Group B: Likely to be carcinogenic to humans
Group C: Suggestive evidence of carcinogenic potential
Group D: Inadequate information to assess carcinogenic potential
Group E: Not likely to be carcinogenic to humans
Other agencies and groups
Other federal agencies, such as the CDC’s National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), and the National Cancer Institute (NCI) may comment on whether a
substance or exposure may cause cancer and/or what levels of exposure
to a particular substance might be considered acceptable.
Some state agencies also keep lists of known or probable carcinogens.
For example, the California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA)
maintains a list of “chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or
reproductive toxicity.” (Much of this list is based on the IARC and NTP
lists below.)
The American Cancer Society’s role
The American Cancer Society (ACS) contributes in many ways to evaluating
how environmental factors affect a person's likelihood of developing
cancer, including:
Conducting epidemiologic research on the causes of cancer
Funding laboratory and epidemiologic research at universities and
other institutions that study environmental causes of cancer
Advocating for environmental health on local, state, and federal levels
Informing the public about environmental factors that affect cancer risk and how to decrease their risk of developing cancer
In most cases, the ACS does not directly evaluate whether a certain
substance or exposure causes cancer. Instead, the ACS looks to national
and international organizations such as the NTP and IARC, whose mission
is to evaluate environmental cancer risks based on evidence from
laboratory and human research studies.
Some important points about the IARC and NTP lists here
The IARC and NTP act independently but have studied many of the same
agents, so many known or suspected carcinogens appear on both lists. But
because an agent appears on one and not on the other does not
necessarily mean there is a controversy, as one agency may not have
evaluated it.
Unfortunately, many of the substances and exposures on the lists below
can often go by different names. This can make it hard to find a
particular substance on one or both of these lists, which are in
alphabetical order and may not always use the most common term.
These lists include only those agents that have been evaluated by the
agencies. These agencies tend to focus on substances and exposures most
likely to cause cancer, but there are many others that have not been
studied fully yet.
Most of the agents on the lists have been linked only with certain kinds
of cancer, not all types. For more detailed information, refer to the
specific monographs or reports published by the agencies (available on
their websites).
The lists describe the level of evidence that something can cause
cancer, not how likely it is that something will cause cancer in any
particular person. For example, IARC considers there to be strong
evidence that both tobacco smoking and eating processed meat can cause
cancer, so both are listed as “carcinogenic to humans.” But smoking is
much more likely to cause cancer than eating processed meat, even though
both are in the same category.
Carcinogens do not cause cancer at all times, under all circumstances.
Some may only be carcinogenic if a person is exposed in a certain way
(for example, swallowing it as opposed to touching it). Some may only
cause cancer in people who have a certain genetic makeup. Some of these
agents may lead to cancer after only a very small exposure, while others
might require intense exposure over many years. Again, you should refer
to the agencies’ reports for specifics.
Even if a substance or exposure is known or suspected to cause cancer,
this does not necessarily mean that it can or should be avoided at all
costs. For example, estrogen is a known carcinogen that occurs naturally
in the body. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight is
also known to cause cancer, but it’s not practical (or advisable) to
completely avoid the sun. These lists also include many commonly used
medicines, particularly some hormones and drugs used to treat cancer.
For example, tamoxifen increases the risk of certain kinds of uterine
cancer but can be very useful in treating some breast cancers, which may
be more important for some women. If you have questions about a
medicine that appears on one of these lists, be sure to ask your doctor.
Looking at the list below can tell you whether or not something may
increase your risk of cancer, but it is important to try to get an idea
of how much it might increase your risk. It is also important to know
what your risk is to begin with. Many factors can enter into this,
including your age, gender, family history, and lifestyle factors
(tobacco and alcohol use, weight, diet, physical activity level, etc.).
As noted above, the type and extent of exposure to a substance may also
play a role. You should consider the actual amount of increased risk
when deciding if you should limit or avoid an exposure.
Known human carcinogens
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans
Acetaldehyde (from consuming alcoholic beverages)
Acheson process, occupational exposure associated with
Acid mists, strong inorganic
Aflatoxins
Alcoholic beverages
Aluminum production
4-Aminobiphenyl
Areca nut
Aristolochic acid (and plants containing it)
Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
Asbestos (all forms) and mineral substances (such as talc or vermiculite) that contain asbestos
Auramine production
Azathioprine
Benzene
Benzidine and dyes metabolized to benzidine
Benzo[a]pyrene
Beryllium and beryllium compounds
Betel quid, with or without tobacco
Bis(chloromethyl)ether and chloromethyl methyl ether (technical-grade)
Busulfan
1,3-Butadiene
Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Chlorambucil
Chlornaphazine
Chromium (VI) compounds
Clonorchis sinensis (infection with), also known as the Chinese liver fluke
Coal, indoor emissions from household combustion
Coal gasification
Coal-tar distillation
Coal-tar pitch
Coke production
Cyclophosphamide
Cyclosporine
1,2-Dichloropropane
Diethylstilbestrol
Engine exhaust, diesel
Epstein-Barr virus (infection with)
Erionite
Estrogen postmenopausal therapy
Estrogen-progestogen postmenopausal therapy (combined)
Estrogen-progestogen oral contraceptives (combined) (Note: There is
also convincing evidence in humans that these agents confer a protective
effect against cancer in the endometrium and ovary)
Ethanol in alcoholic beverages
Ethylene oxide
Etoposide
Etoposide in combination with cisplatin and bleomycin
Fission products, including strontium-90
Fluoro-edenite fibrous amphibole
Formaldehyde
Haematite mining (underground)
Helicobacter pylori (infection with)
Hepatitis B virus (chronic infection with)
Hepatitis C virus (chronic infection with)
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) (infection with)
Human papilloma virus (HPV) types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51,
52, 56, 58, 59 (infection with) (Note: The HPV types that have been
classified as carcinogenic to humans can differ by an order of magnitude
in risk for cervical cancer)
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-1) (infection with)
Ionizing radiation (all types)
Iron and steel founding (workplace exposure)
Isopropyl alcohol manufacture using strong acids
Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) (infection with)
Leather dust
Lindane
Magenta production
Melphalan
Methoxsalen (8-methoxypsoralen) plus ultraviolet A radiation, also known as PUVA
4,4'-Methylenebis(chloroaniline) (MOCA)
Mineral oils, untreated or mildly treated
MOPP and other combined chemotherapy including alkylating agents
2-Naphthylamine
Neutron radiation
Nickel compounds
N'-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(N-Nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)
Opisthorchis viverrini (infection with), also known as the Southeast Asian liver fluke
Outdoor air pollution (and the particulate matter in it)
Painter (workplace exposure as a)
3,4,5,3',4'entachlorobiphenyl (PCB-126)
2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran
Phenacetin (and mixtures containing it)
Phosphorus-32, as phosphate
Plutonium
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxin-like, with a Toxicity
Equivalency Factor according to WHO (PCBs 77, 81, 105, 114, 118, 123,
126, 156, 157, 167, 169, 189)
Processed meat (consumption of)
Radioiodines, including iodine-131
Radionuclides, alpha-particle-emitting, internally deposited (Note:
Specific radionuclides for which there is sufficient evidence for
carcinogenicity to humans are also listed individually as Group 1
agents)
Radionuclides, beta-particle-emitting, internally deposited (Note:
Specific radionuclides for which there is sufficient evidence for
carcinogenicity to humans are also listed individually as Group 1
agents)
Radium-224 and its decay products
Radium-226 and its decay products
Radium-228 and its decay products
Radon-222 and its decay products
Rubber manufacturing industry
Salted fish (Chinese-style)
Schistosoma haematobium (infection with)
Semustine (methyl-CCNU)
Shale oils
Silica dust, crystalline, in the form of quartz or cristobalite
Solar radiation
Soot (as found in workplace exposure of chimney sweeps)
Sulfur mustard
Tamoxifen (Note: There is also conclusive evidence that tamoxifen
reduces the risk of contralateral breast cancer in breast cancer
patients)
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin
Thiotepa
Thorium-232 and its decay products
Tobacco, smokeless
Tobacco smoke, secondhand
Tobacco smoking
ortho-Toluidine
Treosulfan
Trichloroethylene
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, including UVA, UVB, and UVC rays
Ultraviolet-emitting tanning devices
Vinyl chloride
Wood dust
X- and Gamma-radiation
National Toxicology Program 14th Report on Carcinogens
“Known to be human carcinogens”
Aflatoxins
Alcoholic beverage consumption
4-Aminobiphenyl
Analgesic mixtures containing phenacetin
Aristolochic acids
Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
Asbestos
Azathioprine
Benzene
Benzidine
Beryllium and beryllium compounds
Bis(chloromethyl) ether and technical-grade chloromethyl methyl ether
1,3-Butadiene
1,4-Butanediol dimethylsulfonate (also known as busulfan)
Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Chlorambucil
1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4-methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea (MeCCNU)
Chromium hexavalent compounds
Coal tar pitches
Coal tars
Coke oven emissions
Cyclophosphamide
Cyclosporin A
Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
Dyes metabolized to benzidine
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
Erionite
Estrogens, steroidal
Ethylene oxide
Formaldehyde
Hepatitis B virus
Hepatitis C virus
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)
Human papilloma viruses: some genital-mucosal types
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) (also know as human herpesvirus 8, or HHV-8)
Melphalan
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV)
Methoxsalen with ultraviolet A therapy (PUVA)
Mineral oils (untreated and mildly treated)
Mustard gas
2-Naphthylamine
Neutrons
Nickel compounds
Oral tobacco products
Radon
Silica, crystalline (respirable size)
Solar radiation
Soots
Strong inorganic acid mists containing sulfuric acid
Sunlamps or sunbeds, exposure to
Tamoxifen
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD); "dioxin"
Thiotepa
Thorium dioxide
Tobacco smoke, environmental
Tobacco, smokeless
Tobacco smoking
o‑Toluidine
Trichloroethylene (TCE)
Vinyl chloride
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, broad spectrum
Wood dust
X-radiation and gamma radiation
Probable carcinogens
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans
Acrylamide
Adriamycin (doxorubicin)
Androgenic (anabolic) steroids
Art glass, glass containers, and press ware (manufacture of)
Azacitidine
Biomass fuel (primarily wood), emissions from household combustion
Bischloroethyl nitrosourea (BCNU), also known as carmustine
Captafol
Carbon electrode manufacture
Chloral
Chloral hydrate
Chloramphenicol
alpha-Chlorinated toluenes (benzal chloride, benzotrichloride, benzyl chloride) and benzoyl chloride (combined exposures)
1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU)
4-Chloro-ortho-toluidine
Chlorozotocin
Cisplatin
Cobalt metal with tungsten carbide
Creosotes
Cyclopenta[cd]pyrene
DDT (4,4'-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
Diazinon
Dibenz[a,j]acridine
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene
Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride)
Diethyl sulfate
Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride
1,2-Dimethylhydrazine
Dimethyl sulfate
Epichlorohydrin
Ethyl carbamate (urethane)
Ethylene dibromide
N-Ethyl-N-nitrosourea
Frying, emissions from high-temperature
Glycidol
Glyphosate
Hairdresser or barber (workplace exposure as)
Human papillomavirus (HPV) type 68 (infection with)
Indium phosphide
IQ (2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline)
Lead compounds, inorganic
Malaria (caused by infection with Plasmodium falciparum)
Malathion
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV)
5-Methoxypsoralen
Methyl methanesulfonate
N-Methyl-N´-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)
N-Methyl-N-nitrosourea
Nitrate or nitrite (ingested) under conditions that result in endogenous nitrosation
6-Nitrochrysene
Nitrogen mustard
1-Nitropyrene
N-Nitrosodiethylamine
N-Nitrosodimethylamine
2-Nitrotoluene
Non-arsenical insecticides (workplace exposures in spraying and application of)
Petroleum refining (workplace exposures in)
Pioglitazone
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
Procarbazine hydrochloride
1,3-Propane sultone
Red meat (consumption of)
Shiftwork that involves circadian disruption
Silicon carbide whiskers
Styrene-7,8-oxide
Teniposide
Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene)
Tetrafluoroethylene
Trichloroethylene
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Very hot beverages (above 65 degrees Celsius)
Vinyl bromide (Note: For practical purposes, vinyl bromide should be
considered to act similarly to the human carcinogen vinyl chloride.)
Vinyl fluoride (Note: For practical purposes, vinyl fluoride should
be considered to act similarly to the human carcinogen vinyl chloride.)
National Toxicology Program 14th Report on Carcinogens
“Reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens”
Acetaldehyde
2-Acetylaminofluorene
Acrylamide
Acrylonitrile
Adriamycin® (doxorubicin hydrochloride)
2-Aminoanthraquinone
o-Aminoazotoluene
1-Amino-2,4-dibromoanthraquinone
1-Amino-2-methylanthraquinone
2-Amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ)
2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx)
2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ)
2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)
Amitrole
o-Anisidine and its hydrochloride
Azacitidine (5-Azacytidine®, 5-AzaC)
Basic Red 9 Monohydrochloride
Benz[a]anthracene
Benzo[b]fluoranthene
Benzo[j]fluoranthene
Benzo[k]fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Benzotrichloride
2, 2-bis-(bromoethyl)-1,3-propanediol (technical grade)
Bromodichloromethane
1-Bromopropane
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
Captafol
Carbon tetrachloride
Ceramic fibers (respirable size)
Chloramphenicol
Chlorendic acid
Chlorinated paraffins (C12, 60% chlorine)
Chloroform
1-(2-chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea
Bis(chloroethyl) nitrosourea
3-Chloro-2-methylpropene
4-Chloro-o-phenylenediamine
Chloroprene
p-Chloro-o-toluidine and p-chloro-o-toluidine hydrochloride
Chlorozotocin
Cisplatin
Cobalt and cobalt compounds that release cobalt ions in vivo
Cobalt-tungsten carbide: powders and hard metals
p-Cresidine
Cumene
Cupferron
Dacarbazine
Danthron (1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone)
2,4-Diaminoanisole sulfate
2,4-Diaminotoluene
Diazoaminobenzene
Dibenz[a,h]acridine
Dibenz[a,j]acridine
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene
7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole
Dibenzo[a,e]pyrene
Dibenzo[a,h]pyrene
Dibenzo[a,i]pyrene
Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane
1,2-Dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide)
2,3-Dibromo-1-propanol
Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine and 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine dihydrochloride
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
1,2-Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride)
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride)
1,3-Dichloropropene (technical grade)
Diepoxybutane
Diesel exhaust particulates
Diethyl sulfate
Diglycidyl resorcinol ether
3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine
4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene
3,3'-Dimethylbenzidine
Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride
1,1-Dimethylhydrazine
Dimethyl sulfate
Dimethylvinyl chloride
1,6-Dinitropyrene
1,8-Dinitropyrene
1,4-Dioxane
Disperse blue 1
Dyes metabolized to 3,3'-dimethoxybenzidine
Dyes metabolized to 3,3'-dimethylbenzidine
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylene thiourea
Ethyl methanesulfonate
Furan
Glass wool fibers (inhalable)
Glycidol
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers
Hexachloroethane
Hexamethylphosphoramide
Hydrazine and hydrazine sulfate
Hydrazobenzene
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene
Iron dextran complex
Isoprene
Kepone® (chlordecone)
Lead and lead compounds
Lindane, hexachlorocyclohexane
2-Methylaziridine (propylenimine)
5-Methylchrysene
4,4'-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline)
4-4'-Methylenebis(N,N-dimethyl)benzenamine
4,4'-Methylenedianiline and its dihydrochloride salt
Methyleugenol
Methyl methanesulfonate
N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine
Metronidazole
Michler’s ketone [4,4'-(dimethylamino) benzophenone]
Mirex
Naphthalene
Nickel, metallic
Nitrilotriacetic acid
o-Nitroanisole
Nitrobenzene
6-Nitrochrysene
Nitrofen (2,4-dichlorophenyl-p-nitrophenyl ether)
Nitrogen mustard hydrochloride
Nitromethane
2-Nitropropane
1-Nitropyrene
4-Nitropyrene
N-nitrosodi-n-butylamine
N-nitrosodiethanolamine
N-nitrosodiethylamine
N-nitrosodimethylamine
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
N-nitroso-N-ethylurea
4-(N-nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone
N-nitroso-N-methylurea
N-nitrosomethylvinylamine
N-nitrosomorpholine
N-nitrosonornicotine
N-nitrosopiperidine
N-nitrosopyrrolidine
N-nitrososarcosine
o-Nitrotoluene
Norethisterone
Ochratoxin A
4,4'-Oxydianiline
Oxymetholone
Pentachlorophenol and by-products of its synthesis
Phenacetin
Phenazopyridine hydrochloride
Phenolphthalein
Phenoxybenzamine hydrochloride
Phenytoin and phenytoin sodium
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Procarbazine and its hydrochloride
Progesterone
1,3-Propane sultone
beta-Propiolactone
Propylene oxide
Propylthiouracil
Reserpine
Riddelliine
Safrole
Selenium sulfide
Streptozotocin
Styrene
Styrene-7,8-oxide
Sulfallate
Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene)
Tetrafluoroethylene
Tetranitromethane
Thioacetamide
4,4'-Thiodianaline
Thiourea
Toluene diisocyanates
Toxaphene
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Ultraviolet A radiation
Ultraviolet B radiation
Ultraviolet C radiation
Urethane
Vinyl bromide
4-Vinyl-1-cyclohexene diepoxide
Vinyl fluoride
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cause cancer. As part of the American Cancer Society’s role in informing
and educating people about cancer and its possible causes, this
document provides lists of substances and exposures that are known or
suspected to cause cancer. The lists below have been developed by two
highly respected agencies – the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) and the US National Toxicology Program (NTP). Some related
information is included on how these and other agencies and groups test
and classify possible carcinogens.
The American Cancer Society does not keep detailed information on each
of the exposures on these lists. If you are looking for more in-depth
information on a particular item on these lists, please refer to the
agencies in the “Additional resources” section.
What is a carcinogen?
Cancer is caused by changes in a cell’s DNA – its genetic “blueprint.”
Some of these changes may be inherited from our parents. Others may be
caused by outside exposures, which are often referred to as
environmental factors. Environmental factors can include a wide range of
exposures, such as:
Lifestyle factors (nutrition, tobacco use, physical activity, etc.)
Naturally occurring exposures (ultraviolet light, radon gas, infectious agents, etc.)
Medical treatments (radiation and medicines including chemotherapy,
hormone drugs, drugs that suppress the immune system, etc.)
Workplace exposures
Household exposures
Pollution
Substances and exposures that can lead to cancer are called carcinogens.
Some carcinogens do not affect DNA directly, but lead to cancer in
other ways. For example, they may cause cells to divide at a faster than
normal rate, which could increase the chances that DNA changes will
occur.
Carcinogens do not cause cancer in every case, all the time. Substances
labeled as carcinogens may have different levels of cancer-causing
potential. Some may cause cancer only after prolonged, high levels of
exposure. And for any particular person, the risk of developing cancer
depends on many factors, including how they are exposed to a carcinogen,
the length and intensity of the exposure, and the person's genetic
makeup.
How do researchers determine if something is a carcinogen?
Testing to see if something can cause cancer is often difficult. It is
not ethical to test a substance by exposing people to it and seeing if
they get cancer from it. That’s why scientists must use other types of
tests, which may not always give clear answers.
Lab studies
Scientists get much of their data about whether something might cause
cancer from lab studies in cell cultures and animals. There are far too
many substances (both natural and man-made) to test each one in lab
animals, so scientists use what is already known about chemical
structures, results from other types of lab tests, the extent of human
exposure, and other factors to select chemicals for testing. For
example, they can often get an idea about whether a substance might
cause a problem by comparing it to similar chemicals that have already
been studied.
Although lab studies alone can't always predict if a substance will
cause cancer in people, virtually all known human carcinogens that have
been adequately tested also cause cancer in lab animals. In many cases,
carcinogens are first found to cause cancer in lab animals and are later
found to cause cancer in people.
Most studies of potential carcinogens expose the lab animals to doses
that are much higher than common human exposures. This is so that cancer
risk can be detected in relatively small groups of animals. It is not
always clear if the results from animal studies will be the same for
people as they are normally exposed to a substance. For example, the
effects seen in lab studies with very high doses of a substance may not
be the same at much lower doses, or the effects of a substance when it
is inhaled may not be the same as if it is applied to the skin. Also,
the bodies of lab animals and humans don't always process substances in
the same way.
But for safety reasons, it is usually assumed that exposures that cause
cancer at larger doses in animals may also cause cancer in people. It
isn't always possible to know how the exposure dose might affect risk,
but it is reasonable for public health purposes to assume that lowering
human exposure will reduce risk.
Studies in people
Another important way to identify carcinogens is through epidemiologic
studies, which look at human populations to determine which factors
might be linked to cancer. These studies also provide useful
information, but they have their limits. Humans do not live in a
controlled environment. People are exposed to many substances at any
given time, including those they encounter at work, school, or home; in
the food they eat; and in the air they breathe. It's very unlikely they
know exactly what they've been exposed to or that they would be able to
remember all of their exposures if asked by a researcher. And there are
usually many years (often decades) between exposure to a carcinogen and
the development of cancer. Therefore, it can be very hard to definitely
link any particular exposure to cancer.
By combining data from both types of studies, scientists do their best
to make an educated assessment of a substance's cancer-causing ability.
When the evidence is conclusive, the substance is labeled as a
carcinogen. When the available evidence is compelling but not felt to be
conclusive, the substance may be considered to be a probable
carcinogen. But in some cases there simply isn't enough information to
be certain one way or the other.
Who determines how carcinogens are classified?
Several national and international agencies are responsible for
determining the cancer-causing potential of different substances.
International Agency for Research on Cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is part of the
World Health Organization (WHO). One of its major goals is to identify
causes of cancer. The most widely used system for classifying
carcinogens comes from the IARC. In the past 30 years, the IARC has
evaluated the cancer-causing potential of more than 900 likely
candidates, placing them into one of the following groups:
Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans
Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans
Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans
Group 3: Unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans
Group 4: Probably not carcinogenic to humans
Perhaps not surprisingly, based on how hard it can be to test these
candidate carcinogens, most are listed as being of probable, possible,
or unknown risk. Only a little over 100 are classified as “carcinogenic
to humans.”
National Toxicology Program
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) is formed from parts of several
different US government agencies, including the National Institutes of
Health (NIH), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The NTP updates its Report on
Carcinogens (RoC) every few years.
The Report on Carcinogens identifies 2 groups of agents:
“Known to be human carcinogens”
“Reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens”
The current version of the RoC lists about 250 substances and exposures.
Unlike the IARC’s list, the RoC does not list substances that have been
studied and found not to be carcinogens.
Environmental Protection Agency
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maintains the Integrated
Risk Information System (IRIS), an electronic database that contains
information on human health effects from exposure to certain substances
in the environment. The EPA uses a rating system similar to that of IARC
when describing the cancer-causing potential of a substance:
Group A: Carcinogenic to humans
Group B: Likely to be carcinogenic to humans
Group C: Suggestive evidence of carcinogenic potential
Group D: Inadequate information to assess carcinogenic potential
Group E: Not likely to be carcinogenic to humans
Other agencies and groups
Other federal agencies, such as the CDC’s National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), and the National Cancer Institute (NCI) may comment on whether a
substance or exposure may cause cancer and/or what levels of exposure
to a particular substance might be considered acceptable.
Some state agencies also keep lists of known or probable carcinogens.
For example, the California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA)
maintains a list of “chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or
reproductive toxicity.” (Much of this list is based on the IARC and NTP
lists below.)
The American Cancer Society’s role
The American Cancer Society (ACS) contributes in many ways to evaluating
how environmental factors affect a person's likelihood of developing
cancer, including:
Conducting epidemiologic research on the causes of cancer
Funding laboratory and epidemiologic research at universities and
other institutions that study environmental causes of cancer
Advocating for environmental health on local, state, and federal levels
Informing the public about environmental factors that affect cancer risk and how to decrease their risk of developing cancer
In most cases, the ACS does not directly evaluate whether a certain
substance or exposure causes cancer. Instead, the ACS looks to national
and international organizations such as the NTP and IARC, whose mission
is to evaluate environmental cancer risks based on evidence from
laboratory and human research studies.
Some important points about the IARC and NTP lists here
The IARC and NTP act independently but have studied many of the same
agents, so many known or suspected carcinogens appear on both lists. But
because an agent appears on one and not on the other does not
necessarily mean there is a controversy, as one agency may not have
evaluated it.
Unfortunately, many of the substances and exposures on the lists below
can often go by different names. This can make it hard to find a
particular substance on one or both of these lists, which are in
alphabetical order and may not always use the most common term.
These lists include only those agents that have been evaluated by the
agencies. These agencies tend to focus on substances and exposures most
likely to cause cancer, but there are many others that have not been
studied fully yet.
Most of the agents on the lists have been linked only with certain kinds
of cancer, not all types. For more detailed information, refer to the
specific monographs or reports published by the agencies (available on
their websites).
The lists describe the level of evidence that something can cause
cancer, not how likely it is that something will cause cancer in any
particular person. For example, IARC considers there to be strong
evidence that both tobacco smoking and eating processed meat can cause
cancer, so both are listed as “carcinogenic to humans.” But smoking is
much more likely to cause cancer than eating processed meat, even though
both are in the same category.
Carcinogens do not cause cancer at all times, under all circumstances.
Some may only be carcinogenic if a person is exposed in a certain way
(for example, swallowing it as opposed to touching it). Some may only
cause cancer in people who have a certain genetic makeup. Some of these
agents may lead to cancer after only a very small exposure, while others
might require intense exposure over many years. Again, you should refer
to the agencies’ reports for specifics.
Even if a substance or exposure is known or suspected to cause cancer,
this does not necessarily mean that it can or should be avoided at all
costs. For example, estrogen is a known carcinogen that occurs naturally
in the body. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight is
also known to cause cancer, but it’s not practical (or advisable) to
completely avoid the sun. These lists also include many commonly used
medicines, particularly some hormones and drugs used to treat cancer.
For example, tamoxifen increases the risk of certain kinds of uterine
cancer but can be very useful in treating some breast cancers, which may
be more important for some women. If you have questions about a
medicine that appears on one of these lists, be sure to ask your doctor.
Looking at the list below can tell you whether or not something may
increase your risk of cancer, but it is important to try to get an idea
of how much it might increase your risk. It is also important to know
what your risk is to begin with. Many factors can enter into this,
including your age, gender, family history, and lifestyle factors
(tobacco and alcohol use, weight, diet, physical activity level, etc.).
As noted above, the type and extent of exposure to a substance may also
play a role. You should consider the actual amount of increased risk
when deciding if you should limit or avoid an exposure.
Known human carcinogens
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans
Acetaldehyde (from consuming alcoholic beverages)
Acheson process, occupational exposure associated with
Acid mists, strong inorganic
Aflatoxins
Alcoholic beverages
Aluminum production
4-Aminobiphenyl
Areca nut
Aristolochic acid (and plants containing it)
Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
Asbestos (all forms) and mineral substances (such as talc or vermiculite) that contain asbestos
Auramine production
Azathioprine
Benzene
Benzidine and dyes metabolized to benzidine
Benzo[a]pyrene
Beryllium and beryllium compounds
Betel quid, with or without tobacco
Bis(chloromethyl)ether and chloromethyl methyl ether (technical-grade)
Busulfan
1,3-Butadiene
Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Chlorambucil
Chlornaphazine
Chromium (VI) compounds
Clonorchis sinensis (infection with), also known as the Chinese liver fluke
Coal, indoor emissions from household combustion
Coal gasification
Coal-tar distillation
Coal-tar pitch
Coke production
Cyclophosphamide
Cyclosporine
1,2-Dichloropropane
Diethylstilbestrol
Engine exhaust, diesel
Epstein-Barr virus (infection with)
Erionite
Estrogen postmenopausal therapy
Estrogen-progestogen postmenopausal therapy (combined)
Estrogen-progestogen oral contraceptives (combined) (Note: There is
also convincing evidence in humans that these agents confer a protective
effect against cancer in the endometrium and ovary)
Ethanol in alcoholic beverages
Ethylene oxide
Etoposide
Etoposide in combination with cisplatin and bleomycin
Fission products, including strontium-90
Fluoro-edenite fibrous amphibole
Formaldehyde
Haematite mining (underground)
Helicobacter pylori (infection with)
Hepatitis B virus (chronic infection with)
Hepatitis C virus (chronic infection with)
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) (infection with)
Human papilloma virus (HPV) types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51,
52, 56, 58, 59 (infection with) (Note: The HPV types that have been
classified as carcinogenic to humans can differ by an order of magnitude
in risk for cervical cancer)
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-1) (infection with)
Ionizing radiation (all types)
Iron and steel founding (workplace exposure)
Isopropyl alcohol manufacture using strong acids
Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) (infection with)
Leather dust
Lindane
Magenta production
Melphalan
Methoxsalen (8-methoxypsoralen) plus ultraviolet A radiation, also known as PUVA
4,4'-Methylenebis(chloroaniline) (MOCA)
Mineral oils, untreated or mildly treated
MOPP and other combined chemotherapy including alkylating agents
2-Naphthylamine
Neutron radiation
Nickel compounds
N'-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(N-Nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)
Opisthorchis viverrini (infection with), also known as the Southeast Asian liver fluke
Outdoor air pollution (and the particulate matter in it)
Painter (workplace exposure as a)
3,4,5,3',4'entachlorobiphenyl (PCB-126)
2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran
Phenacetin (and mixtures containing it)
Phosphorus-32, as phosphate
Plutonium
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxin-like, with a Toxicity
Equivalency Factor according to WHO (PCBs 77, 81, 105, 114, 118, 123,
126, 156, 157, 167, 169, 189)
Processed meat (consumption of)
Radioiodines, including iodine-131
Radionuclides, alpha-particle-emitting, internally deposited (Note:
Specific radionuclides for which there is sufficient evidence for
carcinogenicity to humans are also listed individually as Group 1
agents)
Radionuclides, beta-particle-emitting, internally deposited (Note:
Specific radionuclides for which there is sufficient evidence for
carcinogenicity to humans are also listed individually as Group 1
agents)
Radium-224 and its decay products
Radium-226 and its decay products
Radium-228 and its decay products
Radon-222 and its decay products
Rubber manufacturing industry
Salted fish (Chinese-style)
Schistosoma haematobium (infection with)
Semustine (methyl-CCNU)
Shale oils
Silica dust, crystalline, in the form of quartz or cristobalite
Solar radiation
Soot (as found in workplace exposure of chimney sweeps)
Sulfur mustard
Tamoxifen (Note: There is also conclusive evidence that tamoxifen
reduces the risk of contralateral breast cancer in breast cancer
patients)
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin
Thiotepa
Thorium-232 and its decay products
Tobacco, smokeless
Tobacco smoke, secondhand
Tobacco smoking
ortho-Toluidine
Treosulfan
Trichloroethylene
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, including UVA, UVB, and UVC rays
Ultraviolet-emitting tanning devices
Vinyl chloride
Wood dust
X- and Gamma-radiation
National Toxicology Program 14th Report on Carcinogens
“Known to be human carcinogens”
Aflatoxins
Alcoholic beverage consumption
4-Aminobiphenyl
Analgesic mixtures containing phenacetin
Aristolochic acids
Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
Asbestos
Azathioprine
Benzene
Benzidine
Beryllium and beryllium compounds
Bis(chloromethyl) ether and technical-grade chloromethyl methyl ether
1,3-Butadiene
1,4-Butanediol dimethylsulfonate (also known as busulfan)
Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Chlorambucil
1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4-methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea (MeCCNU)
Chromium hexavalent compounds
Coal tar pitches
Coal tars
Coke oven emissions
Cyclophosphamide
Cyclosporin A
Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
Dyes metabolized to benzidine
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
Erionite
Estrogens, steroidal
Ethylene oxide
Formaldehyde
Hepatitis B virus
Hepatitis C virus
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)
Human papilloma viruses: some genital-mucosal types
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) (also know as human herpesvirus 8, or HHV-8)
Melphalan
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV)
Methoxsalen with ultraviolet A therapy (PUVA)
Mineral oils (untreated and mildly treated)
Mustard gas
2-Naphthylamine
Neutrons
Nickel compounds
Oral tobacco products
Radon
Silica, crystalline (respirable size)
Solar radiation
Soots
Strong inorganic acid mists containing sulfuric acid
Sunlamps or sunbeds, exposure to
Tamoxifen
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD); "dioxin"
Thiotepa
Thorium dioxide
Tobacco smoke, environmental
Tobacco, smokeless
Tobacco smoking
o‑Toluidine
Trichloroethylene (TCE)
Vinyl chloride
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, broad spectrum
Wood dust
X-radiation and gamma radiation
Probable carcinogens
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans
Acrylamide
Adriamycin (doxorubicin)
Androgenic (anabolic) steroids
Art glass, glass containers, and press ware (manufacture of)
Azacitidine
Biomass fuel (primarily wood), emissions from household combustion
Bischloroethyl nitrosourea (BCNU), also known as carmustine
Captafol
Carbon electrode manufacture
Chloral
Chloral hydrate
Chloramphenicol
alpha-Chlorinated toluenes (benzal chloride, benzotrichloride, benzyl chloride) and benzoyl chloride (combined exposures)
1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU)
4-Chloro-ortho-toluidine
Chlorozotocin
Cisplatin
Cobalt metal with tungsten carbide
Creosotes
Cyclopenta[cd]pyrene
DDT (4,4'-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
Diazinon
Dibenz[a,j]acridine
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene
Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride)
Diethyl sulfate
Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride
1,2-Dimethylhydrazine
Dimethyl sulfate
Epichlorohydrin
Ethyl carbamate (urethane)
Ethylene dibromide
N-Ethyl-N-nitrosourea
Frying, emissions from high-temperature
Glycidol
Glyphosate
Hairdresser or barber (workplace exposure as)
Human papillomavirus (HPV) type 68 (infection with)
Indium phosphide
IQ (2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline)
Lead compounds, inorganic
Malaria (caused by infection with Plasmodium falciparum)
Malathion
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV)
5-Methoxypsoralen
Methyl methanesulfonate
N-Methyl-N´-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)
N-Methyl-N-nitrosourea
Nitrate or nitrite (ingested) under conditions that result in endogenous nitrosation
6-Nitrochrysene
Nitrogen mustard
1-Nitropyrene
N-Nitrosodiethylamine
N-Nitrosodimethylamine
2-Nitrotoluene
Non-arsenical insecticides (workplace exposures in spraying and application of)
Petroleum refining (workplace exposures in)
Pioglitazone
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
Procarbazine hydrochloride
1,3-Propane sultone
Red meat (consumption of)
Shiftwork that involves circadian disruption
Silicon carbide whiskers
Styrene-7,8-oxide
Teniposide
Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene)
Tetrafluoroethylene
Trichloroethylene
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Very hot beverages (above 65 degrees Celsius)
Vinyl bromide (Note: For practical purposes, vinyl bromide should be
considered to act similarly to the human carcinogen vinyl chloride.)
Vinyl fluoride (Note: For practical purposes, vinyl fluoride should
be considered to act similarly to the human carcinogen vinyl chloride.)
National Toxicology Program 14th Report on Carcinogens
“Reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens”
Acetaldehyde
2-Acetylaminofluorene
Acrylamide
Acrylonitrile
Adriamycin® (doxorubicin hydrochloride)
2-Aminoanthraquinone
o-Aminoazotoluene
1-Amino-2,4-dibromoanthraquinone
1-Amino-2-methylanthraquinone
2-Amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ)
2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx)
2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ)
2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)
Amitrole
o-Anisidine and its hydrochloride
Azacitidine (5-Azacytidine®, 5-AzaC)
Basic Red 9 Monohydrochloride
Benz[a]anthracene
Benzo[b]fluoranthene
Benzo[j]fluoranthene
Benzo[k]fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Benzotrichloride
2, 2-bis-(bromoethyl)-1,3-propanediol (technical grade)
Bromodichloromethane
1-Bromopropane
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
Captafol
Carbon tetrachloride
Ceramic fibers (respirable size)
Chloramphenicol
Chlorendic acid
Chlorinated paraffins (C12, 60% chlorine)
Chloroform
1-(2-chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea
Bis(chloroethyl) nitrosourea
3-Chloro-2-methylpropene
4-Chloro-o-phenylenediamine
Chloroprene
p-Chloro-o-toluidine and p-chloro-o-toluidine hydrochloride
Chlorozotocin
Cisplatin
Cobalt and cobalt compounds that release cobalt ions in vivo
Cobalt-tungsten carbide: powders and hard metals
p-Cresidine
Cumene
Cupferron
Dacarbazine
Danthron (1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone)
2,4-Diaminoanisole sulfate
2,4-Diaminotoluene
Diazoaminobenzene
Dibenz[a,h]acridine
Dibenz[a,j]acridine
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene
7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole
Dibenzo[a,e]pyrene
Dibenzo[a,h]pyrene
Dibenzo[a,i]pyrene
Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane
1,2-Dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide)
2,3-Dibromo-1-propanol
Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine and 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine dihydrochloride
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
1,2-Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride)
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride)
1,3-Dichloropropene (technical grade)
Diepoxybutane
Diesel exhaust particulates
Diethyl sulfate
Diglycidyl resorcinol ether
3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine
4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene
3,3'-Dimethylbenzidine
Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride
1,1-Dimethylhydrazine
Dimethyl sulfate
Dimethylvinyl chloride
1,6-Dinitropyrene
1,8-Dinitropyrene
1,4-Dioxane
Disperse blue 1
Dyes metabolized to 3,3'-dimethoxybenzidine
Dyes metabolized to 3,3'-dimethylbenzidine
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylene thiourea
Ethyl methanesulfonate
Furan
Glass wool fibers (inhalable)
Glycidol
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers
Hexachloroethane
Hexamethylphosphoramide
Hydrazine and hydrazine sulfate
Hydrazobenzene
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene
Iron dextran complex
Isoprene
Kepone® (chlordecone)
Lead and lead compounds
Lindane, hexachlorocyclohexane
2-Methylaziridine (propylenimine)
5-Methylchrysene
4,4'-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline)
4-4'-Methylenebis(N,N-dimethyl)benzenamine
4,4'-Methylenedianiline and its dihydrochloride salt
Methyleugenol
Methyl methanesulfonate
N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine
Metronidazole
Michler’s ketone [4,4'-(dimethylamino) benzophenone]
Mirex
Naphthalene
Nickel, metallic
Nitrilotriacetic acid
o-Nitroanisole
Nitrobenzene
6-Nitrochrysene
Nitrofen (2,4-dichlorophenyl-p-nitrophenyl ether)
Nitrogen mustard hydrochloride
Nitromethane
2-Nitropropane
1-Nitropyrene
4-Nitropyrene
N-nitrosodi-n-butylamine
N-nitrosodiethanolamine
N-nitrosodiethylamine
N-nitrosodimethylamine
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
N-nitroso-N-ethylurea
4-(N-nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone
N-nitroso-N-methylurea
N-nitrosomethylvinylamine
N-nitrosomorpholine
N-nitrosonornicotine
N-nitrosopiperidine
N-nitrosopyrrolidine
N-nitrososarcosine
o-Nitrotoluene
Norethisterone
Ochratoxin A
4,4'-Oxydianiline
Oxymetholone
Pentachlorophenol and by-products of its synthesis
Phenacetin
Phenazopyridine hydrochloride
Phenolphthalein
Phenoxybenzamine hydrochloride
Phenytoin and phenytoin sodium
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Procarbazine and its hydrochloride
Progesterone
1,3-Propane sultone
beta-Propiolactone
Propylene oxide
Propylthiouracil
Reserpine
Riddelliine
Safrole
Selenium sulfide
Streptozotocin
Styrene
Styrene-7,8-oxide
Sulfallate
Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene)
Tetrafluoroethylene
Tetranitromethane
Thioacetamide
4,4'-Thiodianaline
Thiourea
Toluene diisocyanates
Toxaphene
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Ultraviolet A radiation
Ultraviolet B radiation
Ultraviolet C radiation
Urethane
Vinyl bromide
4-Vinyl-1-cyclohexene diepoxide
Vinyl fluoride
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